The frustration of revision
When do you stop a composition? The moment when you cannot add or delete any element. When it is complete. When the 'whole' composed of different parts put together in harmony, contrast or other design props is visually balanced to the discerning eye. A good painting is like that. Every stroke has a purpose. Every shade of color adds to the
overall effect however subtly it might be. There are no accidents or mistakes.
Often in my line of work as a designer we sit racking our brain to arrive at a solution which we feel is fairly well composed. We have balanced function with aesthetics, we have finalized the materials and specifications according to our design sensibility and the budget. We sit back on the chair happy at the outcome. It feels complete. We can't wait to show it to the client/superior for approval. But more often than not, the client asks for changes. Not the whole concept but only small things here and there....which very completely messes up the whole composition. These small things change the whole dynamism of the design. It is no longer complete. Remember what I said? You cannot add or delete. Any change leaves the design in disarray. So begins the process of re-balancing. Sometimes you succeed. Most times you have to let go of the most beautiful part of the erstwhile composition in order to accommodate a tiny insignificant alteration which is frustrating.
I once did a residential landscape for a client whose brief was a design within a small budget. So in lieu of that I chose brick as the dominant element and designed the paving lines according to the basic unit of a brick. At a later stage after the bricks had been laid in place, the client changed his mind and asked for granite cladding of the same. No harm done, but the original design using the brick module was made redundant. If I had had the freedom of using granite in the beginning the design would have been different in the first place. It would have evolved keeping in mind granite as a paving material.
What we seek in design is honesty of expression. Honesty of material. Let the basic material shine through and hold the weight of the design on its shoulders. But in the example cited, with that change the essence of the whole design collapsed not unlike a house of cards.
Changing a material is not as simple as that. Every material has an inherent property that affects the design. In the same project, at another location I had proposed granite cobbles and slab in an interesting composition for the entrance area. The client asked for a cheaper option and we explored different materials. Every time we changed the material or the brand, the dimension of the basic unit changed, and the design changed consequently. When the client sees the final drawing it might appear as mere lines. But only a designer and a sincere one at that can appreciate the labor that goes behind the simplest of design. After umpteen changes, with the client vacillating about the choice of material and haggling for reduced rates from dealers, we finally chose a cheap paving option. The resulting design was a poor shadow of what we had started with. I only hope that it lasts its guarantee period.
In another example, when I was working in an architectural firm, my colleague was working on a multi storied apartment building and the plan and elevation was simply beautiful. It was the kind of design where the proportions fall in its rightful place and it deserved to come up in the skyline. But that wasn't to be. After the plan and elevation was approved, the client realized that a hotel would be more profitable and asked for the plan to be revised accordingly. That screwed up the entire design starting from the plan to the elevation. I don't know what happened to that project as I left the firm shortly after but something potentially beautiful was destroyed that day by the relentless dagger of commercial interests.
Saturday, September 19, 2009
Wednesday, August 26, 2009
My Mom’s garden
As long as I remember, my mother had a beautiful garden. Owing to my father’s transferable job, we shifted a few houses. Both my parents shared a passion for gardening. So a garden materialized wherever we settled. My mother’s garden was the talk of the town. She would incorporate unusual elements using scraps and wastes to add interest for instance, old bottles to line the bed, or coconut shells. She would create a pebble pathway with stones she unearthed during weeding and ploughing. She even had a lawn on one occasion maintained with a knife, cutting the blades to size... no lawn mowers. People who visited would always linger on admiring the creativity and the blooms. It seldom mattered how big the garden was or small. It was always beautiful.
She would spend all her spare time in her garden. There were most varieties blooming…seasonals, annuals, greens and foliage, roses, lilies, gladioli, cacti and a host of other plants. Even before I joined an architectural firm and studied landscaping as part of the curriculum, I was familiar with many plant names. And I think my folks know more plant names then me as also more about plants! I am but a designer who designs layouts and puts together the plants according to their textures and colors weaving in hardscaping elements for aesthetics and function but I am not much of a gardener. I am a preacher not a practitioner! Though I love having plants, I have never been out in the dirt prodding, sowing or weeding like my parents.
Gardening is a family pastime. On most occasions, when we go visiting relations, no one ever leaves without a new variety of a Hibiscus or Ixora or an Anthurium. The list is endless. Any one procuring a new plant is sure to pass on the progeny to others. I like it, being part of a green family and I keep dreaming about having my own house one day with a lovely garden. Will I?
Coming back to my mother’s garden, my parents’ house is in town and doesn’t have lot of space for an elaborate garden but whatever space there is has been utilized and converted into a lovely splash of colors and textures. A look around her garden can teach a lot about the art of combining plants in an interesting pattern. I want to share it with all wannabe landscapers. (See also, the successive post)
As long as I remember, my mother had a beautiful garden. Owing to my father’s transferable job, we shifted a few houses. Both my parents shared a passion for gardening. So a garden materialized wherever we settled. My mother’s garden was the talk of the town. She would incorporate unusual elements using scraps and wastes to add interest for instance, old bottles to line the bed, or coconut shells. She would create a pebble pathway with stones she unearthed during weeding and ploughing. She even had a lawn on one occasion maintained with a knife, cutting the blades to size... no lawn mowers. People who visited would always linger on admiring the creativity and the blooms. It seldom mattered how big the garden was or small. It was always beautiful.
She would spend all her spare time in her garden. There were most varieties blooming…seasonals, annuals, greens and foliage, roses, lilies, gladioli, cacti and a host of other plants. Even before I joined an architectural firm and studied landscaping as part of the curriculum, I was familiar with many plant names. And I think my folks know more plant names then me as also more about plants! I am but a designer who designs layouts and puts together the plants according to their textures and colors weaving in hardscaping elements for aesthetics and function but I am not much of a gardener. I am a preacher not a practitioner! Though I love having plants, I have never been out in the dirt prodding, sowing or weeding like my parents.
Gardening is a family pastime. On most occasions, when we go visiting relations, no one ever leaves without a new variety of a Hibiscus or Ixora or an Anthurium. The list is endless. Any one procuring a new plant is sure to pass on the progeny to others. I like it, being part of a green family and I keep dreaming about having my own house one day with a lovely garden. Will I?
Coming back to my mother’s garden, my parents’ house is in town and doesn’t have lot of space for an elaborate garden but whatever space there is has been utilized and converted into a lovely splash of colors and textures. A look around her garden can teach a lot about the art of combining plants in an interesting pattern. I want to share it with all wannabe landscapers. (See also, the successive post)
My mom's garden... (contd)
What I like from a designer’s point of view is the informality. Things appear to have been thrown together. And yet they attain a wonderful sense of balance and harmony. There are not too many flowering plants if you notice and yet the foliage presents lot of interest.
It is a misconception that a good garden must have lots of flowers. Foliage is not just green. There are yellows and pinks, maroons and violets, other than all hues of green and brown. And these plants don’t have significant flowers. But they are still beautiful. Plants like crotons are quite popular but too common place.There are varieties of Calatheas and Philodendrons, Begonias, Dracaenas or the ubiquitous Rhoeo spathacea and the ‘wandering jew’. Notice how she combines a tall shrub with a shorter shrub or contrasting softer leaves with big leaves.
What I like from a designer’s point of view is the informality. Things appear to have been thrown together. And yet they attain a wonderful sense of balance and harmony. There are not too many flowering plants if you notice and yet the foliage presents lot of interest.
It is a misconception that a good garden must have lots of flowers. Foliage is not just green. There are yellows and pinks, maroons and violets, other than all hues of green and brown. And these plants don’t have significant flowers. But they are still beautiful. Plants like crotons are quite popular but too common place.There are varieties of Calatheas and Philodendrons, Begonias, Dracaenas or the ubiquitous Rhoeo spathacea and the ‘wandering jew’. Notice how she combines a tall shrub with a shorter shrub or contrasting softer leaves with big leaves.
Sunday, August 02, 2009
Why small is beautiful
Are you going to build a house? And is your brief to the architect to build bigger than your neighbours? Do you like big spaces? Do you insist on marble floors? Read on…
- A big house means a huge carpet area. While the cost goes up, it is also high maintenance. Back breaking work for you when the maid decides to take leave.
- Marble floors anyone? Marble stains easily. And over a period of time tends to absorb dust and changes its color. SO your snow white marble floor few years down the line won’t remain white. Marble can also get uncomfortable cool in cold weather.
- A 12’ by 10’ sized bedroom is comfortable with a single fan. A larger bedroom will require more fans else you will have very hot corners in the summer. A longer room is better than a larger room. So it’s better to build a 10’x 14’ room than a 12’x12’ room. The light and ventilation is more effective.
- A big kitchen is a nightmare if there are only 1 or 2 people working. Keep in mind the cooking triangle – wash stove and fridge. The closer these are the more efficient the kitchen.
- You can make a room look bigger with light colored walls, and mirrors.
Splashes of color on the wall is a new trend and look chic. But you will get bored very soon and the wall colors are a little difficult to change. Instead, invest on multi colored upholstery and curtains. - Keep the furniture few and less bulky that doesn’t take up too much space. And are easier to move around.
- A person is more comfortable in a room whose space is proportional to the proportions of the individual. A study where a person is likely to be alone reading a book or writing personal matter should be small. Imagine having to write in a room that is the size of an auditorium. A person gets lost in too big a room. A big room is okay if you are expecting many people to use it. The spaces in a house should be intimate. A long living room can be divided into many conversational corners which are more personal and intimate rather than one long seating area.
- Generally the cross ventilation in a small house is much better than a big house thus making it warmer.
- Think of a house in terms of spaces rather than rooms.
- Higher ceiling keeps the interiors cooler. Place the windows strategically for more light while cutting heat. Blindly giving windows all over increases the heat quotient of a house. Windows should be accessible so they can be opened for cleaning and ventilation.
- Don’t get into the trap of building many lofts. These tend to store dead storage which is best disposed off. If you must build a few, make sure you can access these comfortably.
- Provide a walk in closet near the entrance to the house where you can keep all footwear, coats and umbrellas et al.
Tuesday, July 14, 2009
I love travelling in a bus. I can spend hours just looking outside the window as thoughts blend with the sights you behold into a smooth intricate textile. There is the abundant greenery that whooshes past cleansing your eyes of its urban slime.
I also enjoy looking at houses. There are all kinds, big and small, old and new. I like to look at the forms in the speeding glimpse that I am allowed occasionally thrilled at a beautifully proportioned construction or generally left unimpressed. Back from my latest trip my judgement on the mushrooming architecture in Kerala is not favorable. In fact it is disappointing. The houses are just masses of concrete and plastered brick lacking any character whatsoever. The elevation is typical and the forms are neither contemporary nor vernacular but a painful mix of the two. It appears that no thought or time has been spared on the appearance or aesthetics. Design and its principles are a forgotten relic. The only brief that seems to have been given and taken is that the house look as big can be afforded and in the process end up looking unsightly. The proportions of the façade to the fenestrations is queasy. The few houses that I found interesting are old houses which have retained their vernacular style in full.
To quote Keats, “A thing of beauty is a joy for ever.” And how much more true is it when it comes to architecture, the mother of all arts which is a permanent exhibition out in the open for public viewing. Thus, the responsibility is even greater.
Viewing architecture in Kerala gives the impression that the contemporary architecture managed to give Kerala a pass. By that I don't mean use glass and concrete. But why are the forms so stereotypical? We must borrow heavily from the vernacular architecture. For these amalgamated pure function with pure aesthetics that we haven’t manage to out do. The ancient people worked out how a verandah or a courtyard brings in light and ventilation while keeping the rains out. The long eaves lend a magnificent character while protecting the house from heavy showers. The Jaalis let in the air and blocked the views. And yet these elements are missing in today’s houses. We create huge boxes , block the weather install Airconditions and give it a traditional elevation and that too inappropriately. If sloping roof is a climatic necessity why should it be in the typical dormer shape only? And despite today’s technological advances, we still haven’t figured out a way to counter Kerala monsoons. The solution is to go for concrete slabs cladded with terracotta tiles. And it still leaks after 3 years. Did you know that a sloping roof leaks more? That’s because while casting when the concrete mix is still green, the constituents unsettle as the aggregates tend to slide down due to gravity before the initial setting takes place. The terracotta tiles help provided they are of a good brand and the workmanship is good. Many people also overlook the fact the slope of the slab for effective drainage must be at least 30degrees. But the tiles also have a limited life. Metal roof (GI sheets or the more expensive Aluminum sheets) have a longer life and are easier to lay but are often overlooked because they are unsightly. What is absolute torture aesthetically speaking is that many people resort to a huge shed like roof over the existing house. It seems to be the latest trend as I noted during my trip. If metal roof is the solution, then can we integrate it as an element at the designing stage? Or at least provide for it in the planning stage.
The planning is even worse. The plans are so typical that functionality is not even considered. People often have a mistaken belief that a bigger house is more convenient. I have found that the reverse is true. Big house is high on maintenance and the correlation between the user and the scale of the space is often distorted and uncomfortable. A big portion of the finance is spent on the state of the art finishes while the plan is mediocre at the best.
A few young architects are trying to make a difference as their work shows but it’s the mindset of the people that is the biggest hindrance. Very few people who have traveled outside Kerala and have seen the changes have the heart to ask for the change as opposed to perpetuating the established hackneyed architectural style.
I dream of a time when architecture in Kerala is fresh and of world standards leading from front. We have architects to do it and we have the technology and the resources. But architecture is the domain of the patron. As long as the mindset of the client doesn’t change, the state of architecture will remain dismal.
I also enjoy looking at houses. There are all kinds, big and small, old and new. I like to look at the forms in the speeding glimpse that I am allowed occasionally thrilled at a beautifully proportioned construction or generally left unimpressed. Back from my latest trip my judgement on the mushrooming architecture in Kerala is not favorable. In fact it is disappointing. The houses are just masses of concrete and plastered brick lacking any character whatsoever. The elevation is typical and the forms are neither contemporary nor vernacular but a painful mix of the two. It appears that no thought or time has been spared on the appearance or aesthetics. Design and its principles are a forgotten relic. The only brief that seems to have been given and taken is that the house look as big can be afforded and in the process end up looking unsightly. The proportions of the façade to the fenestrations is queasy. The few houses that I found interesting are old houses which have retained their vernacular style in full.
To quote Keats, “A thing of beauty is a joy for ever.” And how much more true is it when it comes to architecture, the mother of all arts which is a permanent exhibition out in the open for public viewing. Thus, the responsibility is even greater.
Viewing architecture in Kerala gives the impression that the contemporary architecture managed to give Kerala a pass. By that I don't mean use glass and concrete. But why are the forms so stereotypical? We must borrow heavily from the vernacular architecture. For these amalgamated pure function with pure aesthetics that we haven’t manage to out do. The ancient people worked out how a verandah or a courtyard brings in light and ventilation while keeping the rains out. The long eaves lend a magnificent character while protecting the house from heavy showers. The Jaalis let in the air and blocked the views. And yet these elements are missing in today’s houses. We create huge boxes , block the weather install Airconditions and give it a traditional elevation and that too inappropriately. If sloping roof is a climatic necessity why should it be in the typical dormer shape only? And despite today’s technological advances, we still haven’t figured out a way to counter Kerala monsoons. The solution is to go for concrete slabs cladded with terracotta tiles. And it still leaks after 3 years. Did you know that a sloping roof leaks more? That’s because while casting when the concrete mix is still green, the constituents unsettle as the aggregates tend to slide down due to gravity before the initial setting takes place. The terracotta tiles help provided they are of a good brand and the workmanship is good. Many people also overlook the fact the slope of the slab for effective drainage must be at least 30degrees. But the tiles also have a limited life. Metal roof (GI sheets or the more expensive Aluminum sheets) have a longer life and are easier to lay but are often overlooked because they are unsightly. What is absolute torture aesthetically speaking is that many people resort to a huge shed like roof over the existing house. It seems to be the latest trend as I noted during my trip. If metal roof is the solution, then can we integrate it as an element at the designing stage? Or at least provide for it in the planning stage.
The planning is even worse. The plans are so typical that functionality is not even considered. People often have a mistaken belief that a bigger house is more convenient. I have found that the reverse is true. Big house is high on maintenance and the correlation between the user and the scale of the space is often distorted and uncomfortable. A big portion of the finance is spent on the state of the art finishes while the plan is mediocre at the best.
A few young architects are trying to make a difference as their work shows but it’s the mindset of the people that is the biggest hindrance. Very few people who have traveled outside Kerala and have seen the changes have the heart to ask for the change as opposed to perpetuating the established hackneyed architectural style.
I dream of a time when architecture in Kerala is fresh and of world standards leading from front. We have architects to do it and we have the technology and the resources. But architecture is the domain of the patron. As long as the mindset of the client doesn’t change, the state of architecture will remain dismal.
Tuesday, July 07, 2009
Vastu Shastra as I understand it
Vastu Shastra, the ancient treatise on building science is a most misunderstood set of planning guidelines. A little similar to modern bye laws, the Vastu Shastra incorporated designing guidelines keeping in mind the society prevalent then and to make the microenvironment in step with the macroenvironment, essentially the local climate and weather patterns and the forces of the earth (gravitational/magnetic). The best way to make the ancients believe in the treatise was to put the fear of God and demon into their head. There is also a part of it that falls into the realms of the mystic. And these are the aspects that have been misinterpreted buy the esoteric to often mislead the common man. Much like astrology, palmistry and other mystical sciences, Vastu Shastra also has aspects that can be explained using logic and reasoning complete with scientific proofs and those that relate to hidden forces and fall in to the realm of the hitherto unknown and consequently beyond science.
I refer to Vastu Shastra as a study in climatology. Over the years, I have come in contact with various people who have had a more scientific approach to the subject and have tried to interpret it thus. I have also tried to reason a few of these guidelines myself. The following are the result of such studies and I hope to throw light on some of the reasoning behind the cryptic Vastu Shastra.
WHAT VASTHU SPECIFIES
The centre of the house should be open. It represented the Brahmam and/or the navel of the Vastu Purusha.
POSSIBLE INTERPRETATION
The open space was nothing else but a courtyard in the centre, which was to be open to sky. A courtyard is a very important climatic feature, both for hot as well as humid climate. It enforced a good deal of cross ventilation thus alleviating the discomfort in extreme weather. Most vernacular styles in India incorporate the courtyard for the same reason. It might also be important in the scenario of ancient planning where houses were built close by for security. A courtyard took care of privacy along with adequate light and ventilation.
IT’S RELEVANCE TODAY
The courtyard has almost completely disappeared from modern planning thanks to the vertical growth of our cities. In an apartment scenario, a private courtyard in every house is an impossibility, although an open to sky atrium is often planned. In contemporary planning, few architects incorporate the courtyard in private houses. Another point to consider is that an open courtyard is an unsafe option in today’s world of thefts and robbery. Consequently the character of a courtyard has changed into a grilled light well. But all the same a courtyard can create dramatic spaces and openness.
WHAT VASTHU SPECIFIES
The North East is the Eeshan corner and is the location for the source of water.
POSSIBLE INTERPRETATION
North East corner is the coolest and the brightest part of the house. It receives the cooler ultra violet rays of the morning. These rays have medicinal property. The idea of a source of water, in those days used to be a well or a tank and its location in this corner probably was specified so that the ultraviolet rays cleansed the water.
IT’S RELEVANCE TODAY
The source of water is no longer the well particularly in cities. Usually it’s a water tank made of RCC or a bore well which is not exposed to the elements.
WHAT VASTHU SPECIFIES
The kitchen should be in the south east corner of the house, also called the Agni moola
POSSIBLE INTERPRETATION
If you study the wind pattern prevalent in India, the direction of wind ranges from the SW to the NE. The direction with the least or no wind is the SE corner. Consequently this is the hottest and driest corner of the house. In olden days, before the cooking gas or stove, people cooked on traditional stoves fueled by burning wood and charcoal. These produced lot of smoke. Placing the kitchen in the SE direction thus prevented the cooking fumes and smoke from entering the rest of the house and the wind coming into the house from other directions entered the kitchen and pushed the smoke out.
IT’S RELEVANCE TODAY
Cooking has become smokeless with the advent of cooking gas and microwave and the direction loses its relevance in an apartment complex (non existent in olden days) but if you are planning a single storied house, kitchen in the SE corner is a good bet. It also ensures that a habitable room is away from the hottest corner.
WHAT VASTHU SPECIFIES
The SW corner should be the most elevated corner of the house while the NE corner should be the lowest.
POSSIBLE INTERPRETATION
This ensures that the central courtyard gets the morning sunshine which is beneficial for health and the afternoon heat of the setting sun from the SW is blocked out.
IT’S RELEVANCE TODAY
Again this principle can be followed in today’s planning particularly if a central courtyard has been planned. This will make a huge difference to the ambient temperature of the interiors making cooling mediums more effective. With effective climate sensitive planning, the dependency on air conditioning is reduced which is a good measure in today’s power starved urban conglomeration.
Vastu Shastra, the ancient treatise on building science is a most misunderstood set of planning guidelines. A little similar to modern bye laws, the Vastu Shastra incorporated designing guidelines keeping in mind the society prevalent then and to make the microenvironment in step with the macroenvironment, essentially the local climate and weather patterns and the forces of the earth (gravitational/magnetic). The best way to make the ancients believe in the treatise was to put the fear of God and demon into their head. There is also a part of it that falls into the realms of the mystic. And these are the aspects that have been misinterpreted buy the esoteric to often mislead the common man. Much like astrology, palmistry and other mystical sciences, Vastu Shastra also has aspects that can be explained using logic and reasoning complete with scientific proofs and those that relate to hidden forces and fall in to the realm of the hitherto unknown and consequently beyond science.
I refer to Vastu Shastra as a study in climatology. Over the years, I have come in contact with various people who have had a more scientific approach to the subject and have tried to interpret it thus. I have also tried to reason a few of these guidelines myself. The following are the result of such studies and I hope to throw light on some of the reasoning behind the cryptic Vastu Shastra.
WHAT VASTHU SPECIFIES
The centre of the house should be open. It represented the Brahmam and/or the navel of the Vastu Purusha.
POSSIBLE INTERPRETATION
The open space was nothing else but a courtyard in the centre, which was to be open to sky. A courtyard is a very important climatic feature, both for hot as well as humid climate. It enforced a good deal of cross ventilation thus alleviating the discomfort in extreme weather. Most vernacular styles in India incorporate the courtyard for the same reason. It might also be important in the scenario of ancient planning where houses were built close by for security. A courtyard took care of privacy along with adequate light and ventilation.
IT’S RELEVANCE TODAY
The courtyard has almost completely disappeared from modern planning thanks to the vertical growth of our cities. In an apartment scenario, a private courtyard in every house is an impossibility, although an open to sky atrium is often planned. In contemporary planning, few architects incorporate the courtyard in private houses. Another point to consider is that an open courtyard is an unsafe option in today’s world of thefts and robbery. Consequently the character of a courtyard has changed into a grilled light well. But all the same a courtyard can create dramatic spaces and openness.
WHAT VASTHU SPECIFIES
The North East is the Eeshan corner and is the location for the source of water.
POSSIBLE INTERPRETATION
North East corner is the coolest and the brightest part of the house. It receives the cooler ultra violet rays of the morning. These rays have medicinal property. The idea of a source of water, in those days used to be a well or a tank and its location in this corner probably was specified so that the ultraviolet rays cleansed the water.
IT’S RELEVANCE TODAY
The source of water is no longer the well particularly in cities. Usually it’s a water tank made of RCC or a bore well which is not exposed to the elements.
WHAT VASTHU SPECIFIES
The kitchen should be in the south east corner of the house, also called the Agni moola
POSSIBLE INTERPRETATION
If you study the wind pattern prevalent in India, the direction of wind ranges from the SW to the NE. The direction with the least or no wind is the SE corner. Consequently this is the hottest and driest corner of the house. In olden days, before the cooking gas or stove, people cooked on traditional stoves fueled by burning wood and charcoal. These produced lot of smoke. Placing the kitchen in the SE direction thus prevented the cooking fumes and smoke from entering the rest of the house and the wind coming into the house from other directions entered the kitchen and pushed the smoke out.
IT’S RELEVANCE TODAY
Cooking has become smokeless with the advent of cooking gas and microwave and the direction loses its relevance in an apartment complex (non existent in olden days) but if you are planning a single storied house, kitchen in the SE corner is a good bet. It also ensures that a habitable room is away from the hottest corner.
WHAT VASTHU SPECIFIES
The SW corner should be the most elevated corner of the house while the NE corner should be the lowest.
POSSIBLE INTERPRETATION
This ensures that the central courtyard gets the morning sunshine which is beneficial for health and the afternoon heat of the setting sun from the SW is blocked out.
IT’S RELEVANCE TODAY
Again this principle can be followed in today’s planning particularly if a central courtyard has been planned. This will make a huge difference to the ambient temperature of the interiors making cooling mediums more effective. With effective climate sensitive planning, the dependency on air conditioning is reduced which is a good measure in today’s power starved urban conglomeration.
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